Would you throw away that specimen of Echinocactus grusonii you see in the photo above? Obviously the answer is no. Indeed, with such perfect thorns it would be a crime to let such a plant die. Nevertheless, a few years ago, when that plant was still a few months old seedling, I was about to throw it away! No, I hadn’t suddenly gone crazy, simply this plant, around 2015, was just one of the many grusonii seedlings obtained with a particularly lucky sowing (that is, characterized by high germination). What you see in the picture was the only seedling born from that sowing to have reached the stage of the first repotting in pitiful conditions, to the point that, convinced that it would not even pass the first repotting, I intended to throw it together with the sowing soil. Today, almost ten years later, that malformed, underdeveloped and sickly-looking seedling has become exactly as you see it in the photo I took a few days ago.

Here, in the following article, is the story of this plant, a plant that has been able to teach me an important lesson: never judge a book by its cover. In life as well as when dealing with Nature. (…)

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L'articolo Here is the story of an Echinocactus grusonii born to lose but alive to win! proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

We see them in detail in the following article (…).

Premise

By the time of June, two first dangers for succulent plants should have passed by now, if we have done everything correctly (and regardless of the fact that this spring has been quite anomalous). I am referring to the danger of cracks on the cacti stems and that of burns following a late or “hasty” exposure. Once the cacti have resumed vegetating after the winter stasis, in fact, it may happen that following the first waterings (if too abundant or too close together) the stem “splits”. In this period of the year, even in the case of a wet and cold spring like the latter, cacti and succulents should have already received at least two or three waterings and the stems of the plants should have swollen. If the recovery has taken place gradually and the plants have returned swollen, the risk of stem splitting for this year can be said to have been archived.

In some ways similar speech in terms of exposure: to date all the plants should have been in their ideal location for some time now, where they will remain until autumn. In other words, those who kept cacti and succulents in the basement, entrance halls or garages should have moved the plants to full light (or half light depending on the genre) by now, under penalty of etiolation. Abruptly moving the plants now, with the June sun starting to get stronger, can expose the plants to the risk of severe burns on the stems. Whether the spring is cool or not, whether it is humid or not, the plants must be gradually accustomed to intense sun or direct sun and this must be done between the end of March and the beginning of April. In this way cacti and succulents are able to get used to direct sunlight very gradually, strengthening the epidermis well before the summer sun hits them. If you haven’t moved your plants yet, do it immediately but repair them with shading nets (especially during the hottest hours of the day), otherwise the first burns will begin to appear in the coming weeks!

Maximum air

Having exhausted the necessary premises, which are nothing if not common practices in the correct cultivation of cacti and succulents in general, we recall that the main element of cultivation, at this point, is trivially… the air. Trivially, because this element is often underestimated, or even not considered at all, taking it for granted. The air, on the other hand, is the main factor for the healthy growth of any plant and in this season, with temperatures starting to rise significantly (on sunny days in a completely open greenhouse it can easily exceed 40 degrees Celsius already in June, let alone August), the plants need as much air circulation as possible.

Anyone who cultivates in a very large professional greenhouse will have to open the structure as much as possible, raising the side curtains and possibly leaving the front and rear doors open. Those who cultivate on balconies and terraces should have no problems whatsoever, while those who cultivate in those small greenhouses covered with a transparent cloth must do nothing but… get rid of the greenhouses, remove all the plants from there and disassemble the greenhouses, which can return comfortable, at best, in winter (although they are still not the best due to the limited air circulation they allow). In this period, if we keep the plants in this type of structure, even by raising the openings in the transparent sheet to the maximum, we will still not be able to ensure the plants the air they need, and with high temperatures and humidity the risk of “boiling” plants or creating the ideal environment for the formation of molds and fungi is very high. Therefore, if you haven’t already done so, remove the greenhouses (which can be simply used as shelves) and, since the plants will not be sufficiently accustomed to the intense sun, shield them with a not too light shading net.

The importance of air and light for succulents plants.

Watering and aestivation

In this period, even if the temperatures are not yet very high this year, it is advisable to increase the frequency of irrigation. If the days are sunny and the weather does not predict rain for the following days, it can be watered once a week. The pace can also be increased to two waterings per week for some species or succulent leafy plants if slight wrinkling is noted. As always, the basic rule is to water only when the substrate appears dry and, if in doubt, postpone it. Beware of the hot months, i.e. July and August, when the difference between the maximum and minimum night-time temperatures is minimal: in conditions of persistent heat, many cacti and many succulents can go into aestivation, slowing down or blocking their growth. In these periods it is better not to water at all, since the plants do not absorb water and the soil would remain moist for too long, with the risk of root rot being triggered.
A few more waterings will have to be reserved for very young plants and seedlings, which are not yet able to tolerate long periods of drought in hot conditions and, at the same time, “push” more than adult specimens.

On the phenomenon of aestivation you will find a specific article at this link.

Fertilization and treatments

In June it is still possible to fertilize succulents. A fertilization is enough, assuming that a first fertilization was given in May or April. If the plants have been repotted a few months ago it will not be necessary to add fertilizer to the water, but if we are dealing with specimens that have lived in the same soil for years, an extra fertilization can be useful to replenish the nutrients once present in the substrate. Pay attention to the product (whether it is in powder or liquid form, it matters little), which must be specific for succulent plants and therefore low in nitrogen and rich in phosphorus and potassium, in addition to microelements. During the real summer, that is in the months of July and August, the fertilizations must instead be suspended.

As for treatments, for years I have minimized the use of pesticides and I only use copper oxychloride and Neem oil. The first is a fungicide which should be administered by nebulization only in the months in which the plants are not in vegetation (in this period it should therefore be avoided). The second is a natural product, with low environmental impact, against parasites, mites and with a modest fungicidal function. Neem oil can be administered, always by nebulization, even in this period, with the foresight to act only when the sun has gone down or early in the morning, before direct light reaches the plants. Targeted fungicides and insecticides can be used in specific cases, for example in the event of an attack by the cochineal or rot that affects several plants. In these cases it is always important to isolate sick specimens from healthy ones and carry out targeted treatments every two weeks.

Here you will find a detailed article on the main adversities of succulents, with general indications on how to intervene.

Always remember that the best weapon against pests and diseases of succulents is correct cultivation, in particular a spartan cultivation, with lots of light, lots of air, little fertilization and little fertilizing.

To repot or not to repot?

In this case there is no definitive answer: during the summer it is possible to repot. Personally I prefer to avoid – except in cases in which the intervention cannot be deferred as the plant is in evident state of suffering and has probably lost its roots – and to postpone repotting until the end of winter and spring. With new purchases, especially if the plants are in peat, repotting is instead recommended at any time of the year: it is better to stress the plant a little rather than leave it in an unsuitable substrate, running the risk of triggering rot. As always, if you repot and clean or shorten the roots, it is important to leave the flared plant in a shady place for at least ten days before repotting. After repotting, wait another week or two before watering, so as to give the roots time to heal effectively. This precaution is especially important in spring and summer, when the plants are growing and are watered regularly: obviously in winter the problem does not arise, since many succulents and almost all cacti must be kept in dry soil.

Other practices

Otherwise, summer is a relatively quiet time for the cactus and succulent grower. It is sufficient to observe the specimens and understand whether they are slowing down their growth (aestivation) or not and adjust accordingly with watering. Finally, a little maintenance certainly doesn’t hurt: you can cut the now dry floral stems in the case of plants such as Aloe, Echeveria, Crassulaceae, etc., just as it is a good thing to remove the dried flowers of the cacti, which with watering they soak in water and can feed molds and fungi.

Seasonal cures in detail

If you want a complete picture of seasonal care, with everything you need to do in spring, summer, autumn and winter to take care of cacti and succulents in the best possible way, you can consult this summary article.

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Correlated articles

Watering cacti and succulents: when and how
How to repot cacti and succulent plants
Substrates for cacti and succulents
The correct soil: the materials you can use

© The texts, videos, photos and graphic elaborations of the site “Il fiore tra le spine” are original material and are covered by copyright. It’s forbidden to reproduce them in any way.

L'articolo Towards summer: useful tips for taking care of cacti and succulents and avoiding nasty surprises proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

For the avoidance of doubt: the title is ironic and here we are talking about rot, unfortunately. No new Copiapoa has been discovered, neither the one you see in this photo and in the other incredible images within this article. Simply, this is what remains of one of my Copiapoa cinerea that rotted this winter without me even realizing it. What we see now is nothing but the armor of thorns that the plant has left me. The quills are so compact and close together that they perfectly maintain the shape of the plant (complete with a dry flower at the apex). The stem simply no longer exists. It has rotted and “evaporated”, disappeared.

Here is what happened and, above all, here are the exceptional photos of this plant, whose fate, moreover, from time to time also touches the specimens in habitat, as I happened to see in some online photos and once, directly, with a young specimen of Ferocactus during a trip to Mexico. (…)

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L'articolo New cactus species discovered: “Copiapoa invisibilis”! Exceptional photos of a plant… that no longer exists proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

Living tangles of incredibly intricate spines, “globes” wrapped in beautiful, deep yellow spines. This is how Ferocactus johnstonianus could be defined, perhaps hastily but at the same time realistically. We are talking about one of the most appreciated and sought after species among enthusiasts of the Ferocactus genus throughout the world. These are relatively uncommon and poorly propagated plants, not easily available on the market. They also do not grow quickly, and perhaps these are some of the factors that contribute to fueling the charm of johnstonianus. In these days of repotting I have had the opportunity to focus on some specimens of this species that I received a few years ago from my friend Francesco Soldi, a highly experienced italian grower especially with regards to the Ferocactus genus, although today he is concentrating on the Echinocactus genus and in particular on the horizonthalonius species. Well, the plants I got from him a few years ago initially grew very slowly – mostly my fault, because I put off repotting for a long time and used an excessively poor substrate – but in the last two years, also thanks to a slightly richer substrate, have recovered and today they are well characterized and proportioned and are starting to show their full potential.

In this article here is an in-depth look at this splendid species. (…)

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L'articolo Johnstonianus, the most beautiful and sought after species of the entire Ferocactus genus proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

To those wondering to what extent the substrate affects the growth of cacti; for those wondering if natural gypsum (also called agricultural gypsum) can be useful in the formation of robust thorns, this article will certainly be useful. Article which is nothing but the update of a small experiment – one of the many I do with my plants – which I started in July 2020 and which gave surprising results, amazing me first. Yes, because although the test sample is limited (six plants in all) and the results are therefore to be considered indicative and far from absolute, I must confess that I did not expect such a response just over two and a half years after the start of this test. It is known that substrates can literally make the difference in the growth of cacti and that natural gypsum (at least with some species of cacti) is an exceptional element, but it is with direct evidence, with the experimental method that we can really appreciate the impact of the soil in the growth of our succulents.

In this article, therefore, we go into the details of the experiment and see, after more than two and a half years, the results I obtained, which in my opinion are remarkable. (…)

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L'articolo Identical cacti in different substrates: extraordinary results of my test and the surprise of natural gypsum proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

Who hasn’t happened at least once to observe in some office, apartment or even non-specialized nurseries (or garden) those cone-shaped cacti with thin spines and pale green stem? Cacti with a rounded base and an elongated apex, tapered to the point of giving the plant an almost pyramidal shape. The novice grower may think that is the normal bearing of the plant, but the grower with some experience – or even just a critical mind – usually is horrified at such plants. If anything, he or she may be saddened, because he or she knows full well that that is not the normal bearing of the cacti at all, but simply the outcome of what is technically called “etiolation” or, commonly, “spinning.” By the way, the photos above and those accompanying this article are of plants in a nursery and not mine, I want to make that clear right away!

Why does this fate happen to some cacti? How to avoid cactus etiolation and how to distinguish it from normal growth or from growth that is simply dissimilar to normal? Is it possible to remedy the damage caused by spinning on a cactus? We answer these questions in the following article. (…)

Let us first clarify that cactus etiolation is a phenomenon that affects not only cacti, but all botanical families. If anything, the problem with cacti is that it is generally an arrestable but, unfortunately, irreversible process. If in leafy plants, shrubs and trees in general it’s indeed possible to remedy by perhaps even drastically pruning the “spindly” branches, in cacti there is little that can be done to restore the plant to its original state. The reason is obvious: cacti develop through single or at most suckered and only rarely branched bodies (think of some candelabra-like cereus), but on the whole the shape of the stem is the shape of the plant, is its appearance. It is one and the same in short. That’s why effectively remedying etiolation is very difficult: you can bring the plant back to an acceptable condition, but if the phenomenon has affected drastically, returning to the original form will be impossible. I will discuss this in more detail later.

Definition of etiolation in cacti and succulent plants

Let us first see what exactly is meant by the term “etiolation” from a botanical point of view. A brief but at the same time comprehensive answer can be found in the easy-to-read booklet, “Conoscere e coltivare le piante succulente” (“Knowing and Growing Succulent Plants“) published by the Italian Succulent Plant Lovers Association (Rome, November 30, 2005), which defines this phenomenon as follows: “Physiological process that occurs in plants when they are in a condition of insufficient light, consisting in an elongation and thinning of stems and branches that thus increase the surface area suitable for photosynthesis“. The first basic clue is that this is a physiological process, thus in some ways “natural.” Natural in a relative sense, since it’s a plant response to suboptimal (in not wrong) growing conditions. In fact, the definition goes on saying that etiolation occurs when plants are in “an insufficient light condition“. So the real cause of this phenomenon is the lack of light. Plants “spin,” as it is commonly said, not when they are in an inadequate substrate or when they are watered too frequently or infrequently or when they are over – or under- fertilized. Plants go into etiolation when they do not get enough light.

However, this concept is also relative and should be commensurate with the needs of the plant. It’s well known that there are plants that can survive only with limited exposure, filtered by other plants. Think of orchids, which do not tolerate direct sun because they are plants native to tropical or subtropical areas and thrive leaning against the branches of trees and shrubs whose foliage shields them from direct sunlight. There are plants that grow perfectly well in half-shade, that is, with bright light for only a few hours, and plants that grow well only when invested with maximum sunlight throughout the day. And this is the case with most cacti, which thrive in semi-desert areas, often in areas where there is little or almost no vegetation. At most, some cacti receive shelter from rocks or shrubs or, in the case of seedlings, from the shade cast by the mother plant. Even in these cases, however, the light they can benefit from is intense and lasts from dawn to dusk. Of course, there are also many cacti that do not tolerate direct sun and grow only under the shelter of boulders and leafy plants, as in the case of the Epiphyllums that live in rainforests and in the case of the “Christmas Cactus” (Schlumbergera) .

Having clarified this first fundamental aspect, the second part of the description helps us understand what the effects of etiolation are and why they occur. Etiolation involves an “elongation and thinning of stems and branches that thereby increase the surface area suitable for photosynthesis“. In other words, plants go in search of light, just as we would go to grasp a distant object: we stretch, we make an effort. The difference is that human beings have a limit and can stretch only within precise physical boundaries (except moving through space simply by walking!), then returning to their original posture once the effort is made. Plants do not have this limit and can elongate far beyond their original status, but they pay a very steep price, which is precisely etiolation, an irreversible process involving the permanent deformation of the plant itself. Branches or stems grow out of all proportion – desperate for the light they hope to find beyond the area of shade in which they find themselves – and once the effort is made they remain deformed, elongated, thinned, with the result that the plant loses its compact and orderly appearance. In other words, it loses its natural look.

Etiolation in cacti, how it occurs

Calming the above definition to the world of cacti, we can add that etiolation is always accompanied by discoloration of the stem, which turns from dark green or bright green to light green. In leafy plants this phenomenon affects the leaves themselves, which turn yellow. Whether stems or leaves, discoloration is always due to the deficiency of chlorophyll, which is produced, as everyone knows, by photosynthesis, that is, with the help of sunlight. In very severe cases, as in many of those you see in the photos accompanying this article, the shape of the stem can alter to the point where a globular bearing cactus (e.g., Echinocactus grusonii) takes on a columnar habit with the apex rising in height while shrinking more and more. For those who are not familiar with cacti, the result may not raise particular questions (although from the point of view of aesthetics there would still be quite a lot to say), but those who have the slightest familiarity with cacti cannot help but be horrified at such compromised specimens. In cacti, moreover, etiolation greatly affects the formation of new spines, which grow much thinner in the “spun” part than they should. Indeed, in cases of severe etiolation the spines are almost insubstantial and sparser than normal.

Etiolation or abnormal growth of the plant?

In severe cases, etiolation of cacti is very easy to recognize. Unless you have no knowledge of this botanical family, it will immediately appear abnormal if the plant has a spun, discolored, thornless apex. If you see it in a nursery, forget about it: it would be a wrong purchase since there is no way back, from an aesthetic point of view. The principle of cactus etiolation, on the other hand, may not appear so obvious. At least not to the experienced grower. We take a good look at the plants, and if we have doubts about their shape, we look online for photos of those same plants in habitat. This will be enough to give us an idea of the correct habit that that plant should have: globular, columnar, branched, tufted, etc. Unmistakable clues to a principle of etiolation are discoloration of the stem apex, which may appear pale green, and the absence of new spines (or the formation of spines that are significantly thinner than they should be). In these cases the plant is beginning to spin and is telling us that it desperately needs light. Be careful, however: let’s not move it into direct sun right away, because the apex of the plant is delicate, especially if it is beginning to etiolate, and we would only burn it. We move the plant to a brighter place for a few weeks, then, if it is a cactus that wants direct sun, we can move it outdoors.

The novice grower may find it difficult to distinguish between true etiolation, abnormal growth or even regular growth. In fact, it may happen that a cactacea with a globular habit grows in height. This is not always a sign of etiolation. Let’s take a close look at the plant: if the stem has no narrowing in the direction of the apex, if the spines are uniform, if the plant has no bottlenecks or discoloration, this is not etiolation but an abnormal growth. This can be due to several factors: first, we have to consider that over the years many cacti tend to become brevicylindrical from globose. They also do this in habitat and it’s normal: many Ferocactus and Echinocatus have this “habit” as do Euphorbia obesa.

Cactus and succulent plants: a guide to identification and classification.

If, however, we are not dealing with large or aged specimens, then it will be abnormal growth due to other factors. Excluding genetics, which we cannot investigate and intervene on, growing factors are irrigation, fertilization, temperature, and substrate. Overfertilization can easily alter the bearing of any plant, as the use of an unsuitable substrate. Also the exposure, even if not insufficient to the point of causing etiolation, may not be adequate, leading that plant to grow differently than Nature intended. By restoring proper growing conditions, we are unlikely to cause the abnormally grown plant to resume a right look, but if nothing else, we will encourage new and proper growth.

What to do against cactus etiolation

Once we have determined that there’s a principle of etiolation or that our plant has been etiolated for some time, we can take corrective action. Beware, however: as I have written, unfortunately there’s no going back, and the etiolated part will remain forever. If we have a branching succulent plant we can prune off the etiolated branches or pull off the yellowed or elongated leaves, but if the etiolation concerns a cactacea… we have to surrender to the evidence and engage us at least to bring the plant back to proper developmental condition. It’s not rare that with time and new growth the etiolated part will become less noticeable, and the plant will react in a surprising way, taking on a bearing that is indeed abnormal but interesting and aesthetically pleasing. This is what happened to the Echinocactus grusonii that I discuss at the end of this article. In any case, once we identify etiolation or the principle of etiolation in a cactacea, all we can do is try to improve the light conditions by gradually moving it. Never put a plant (etiolated or not) in full sun if that plant is not used to direct light: we only expose it to the risk of severe sunburn. We need to read up on the type of plant (e.g., Cactacea or Euphorbia?), figure out what its light requirements are (direct or filtered sun?) and arrive at the correct exposure in stages. While we re-accustom the plant to the right light intensity, we must reduce watering and suspend fertilization. We also postpone repotting so as to avoid further stress to the plant at this delicate stage.

To find out what the various light requirements of succulents are, you can consult this article, which contains a summary table.

If the plant is healthy and if we can give it the correct amount of light (not only in terms of intensity, but also in terms of hours of sunlight), we are able to stop the etiolation process. At that stage, patience is necessary: the plant resumes growing properly, enlarge the apex, which regains its correct coloring, and forms new spines in line with the old ones, that is, stronger and thicker. In other words, the apex returns to normal, and if we look at the plant from above, we don’t see anything abnormal. If we look at it from the side, we can observe the enlarged base, then the bottleneck in correspondence with the etiolation period, and finally the new growth. The effect, in most cases, is that of an “hourglass”, but if we have nipped the etiolation in the bud, there is a chance that the aesthetic damage becomes less and less visible over time.

Finally, we have to consider an important factor: a “spartan” cultivation, in short, that tries to imitate as much as possible the conditions in which cacti are found in their habitat, can only fortify the plants, slow down the growth rates and, at the same time, prevent etiolation of the stems by contributing to the maintenance of the correct and compact form that these plants have.

Beware of winter: should I bring succulents inside?

For those who grow cacti and succulents correctly, placing them in the proper place during the growing season, winter is he only period at risk of etiolation. Not everyone is fortunate enough to have a greenhouse, and even those who have a garden or a large terrace are forced to shelter cacti and succulents as best they can in winter, particularly in areas of northern Italy. Many resort to the stairwell, others use garages or other cold rooms. Some growers use mountable greenhouses or repair plants with layers of nonwoven fabric. In all these cases, if you stop watering altogether from the end of September and if the plants experience a consistent drop in temperatures, there are no problems. This is because under these conditions succulents stop vegetating and stunt new growth while waiting for spring.

If, on the contrary, succulents do not go into stasis, for example because you continue to water while keeping the plants in a heated place or at least at minimum temperatures of not less than 10 Celsius degrees, the risk of etiolation is real. This happen also because one of the first rules for growing cacti (I mean most of the species) involves avoiding “indoor” cultivation, that is, in an apartment. Even if placed on a south-facing windowsill, cacti will never get enough light and especially not for the amount of hours they need for proper growth. While this is true at any season of the year, it’s more true in winter, when the incidence of sunlight is very low and the hours of light are drastically reduced. If we do not stunt growth, in such low light conditions the plant will only continue to vegetate by etiolating, that is, by going in search of light. It is for this reason (as well as to encourage blooms) that it is essential to overwinter cacti and many succulents in the cold. Beware of exceptions, of course: tropical succulents and some genera of cacti do not tolerate too low a minimum (e.g., Melocactus, Discocactus, Schlumbergera). In these cases we can keep the plants indoors, watering no more than once a month just to contain growth.

If we don’t have an unheated place to shelter the plants, we are forced to take them to the apartment. In these cases, we try to place them in the least heated and most lighted room and still suspend watering so as to push the plants to an abrupt slowdown in growth. Finally, let’s keep in mind an important element: if we stop vegetation altogether by keeping the plants in the cold (for example, with lows around 5 Celsius degrees) and suspending watering, the importance of light is relative and we are able to keep cacti and succulents, in winter, even in dimly lit places without running the risk of etiolation. The ideal solution (I realize that this is not always possible) is not to move the plants, that is, to keep them where we grow them in the growing season, i.e., a balcony, a terrace, a greenhouse, while sheltering them from the cold and rain in the fall and winter months (e.g., with layers of nonwoven fabric or with canopies). In this way the plants will follow natural light cycles, enjoy the right temperatures, and fortify themselves while avoiding the risk of etiolation altogether.

Incidentally: it’s for reasons such as those I have outlined above that very often, in non-generic nurseries, we see cacti and succulents terribly spindled, as in the photos I took in recent days in a nursery and publish in this article. There is a tendency in nurseries to try to keep plants always “bloated” and palatable for sale, watering them year-round and sheltering them with overly dense shade nets (necessary for other, more delicate plant families and perhaps kept on the same benches).

Abnormal reactions to etiolation in cacti

In some cases, following etiolation, cacti may react abnormally when restored to optimal conditions for recovery. This is what happened to the Echinocactus grusonii you see in the photo here. The plant, with its typical globular habit, was given to me four years ago. It was kept for at least a couple of years on an office window sill by the previous owner, in inadequate light conditions. When it was given to me it was in very poor condition: the base was rounded and with spines of correct consistency, but the lack of light had caused the apex to grow tall, taking on the characteristic cone shape of heavily etiolated cacti. The apical part was also pale green and virtually spineless: it had only the hint of a few very thin and sparse spines. In short, a disaster. I took the plant to “save” it and, without repotting it, took it to the greenhouse, in a corner sheltered from direct sun. The Echinocactus stayed in that corner for a whole year, receiving very little watering. In this way I began to accustom the plant to brighter light.

After the first year, when I saw that the apex had begun to regain its proper deep green color, I moved the plant outside to half shade. The cactus received direct light only in the early morning hours and then switched to shade. During the second year, the thorns resumed growing properly, but the plant did something that cacti usually do following a damage to the apex (such as from a bump or some insect bite): it began suckering profusely. The apex became covered with suckers, i.e., new heads with strong, long, golden-yellow spines.

Since the plant suckered, I always kept it outdoors from March through September, watering at most once a month if it was not raining. The result, about four years later, is what you see in the photo. When viewed from above, the plant shows no signs of etiolation and has a very interesting shape, with numerous suckers and beautiful spines. If you look at it from the side you can still see the elongated stem, but with time and the development of suckers I am sure that the damage will almost completely disappear and the Echinocactus will become unique, i.e. heavily suckered and definitely beautiful, harmonious in its new form.

A few photographs of cactus etiolation

Below is a gallery of pictures of heavily etiolated Cactaceae and Euphorbiaceae. The photos were taken at a nursery not specialized in succulent plants. Click on the image to enlarge it.

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Correlated articles

How much light do cactus need? A summary table
How to repot cacti and succulent plants
Substrates for cacti and succulents
The correct soil: the materials you can use
When and how fertilize cactus and succulent plants

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L'articolo When the cactus “spins”: what is etiolation, how to prevent it and contain the damage proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

Just as we find a wide variability of shapes and colors in the leaves of botanical species in general, which can be flat, fleshy, needle-shaped, ovate, heart-shaped, lanceolate, etc., we find the same variety in the thorns of cacti. Over the millennia, evolution has led to a remarkable range of shapes and colors, with spines that can have a papery or elastic and very fine consistency or, again, appear rigid, squat and short, long and broad, flat or tapered, sharp, hooked, black, gray, white, red, yellow. In general we can say that cacti are the only plants to have thorns, since in other specimens of the botanical world it is not entirely correct to speak of real thorns. Let’s think of the common roses: what we call thorns are actually excrescences that are produced along the stems, alternating with the leaves, which cacti do not have. So what exactly are thorns and how did cacti come to evolve with these “weapons” along the stem? What is the function of the spines in cacti? Why are some pointed while others are hooked? And why are there also cacti that have no thorns at all?

We will answer all these questions in the following article. (…)

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L'articolo The thorns of cacti: what they are for and why these plants have abandoned their leaves proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

When they say that a picture is better than words. In this case, there are three photos, but the concept doesn’t change, and the difference between a cactus grown in a “natural” (or “wild”) way and one with a “garden-style”, based on basic notions and beliefs is quite evident. The plants I’m writing about are Ferocactus latispinus obtained from a 2012 sowing of mine. From that same planting, I’ve got at least forty plants. Over the years, I have given away some of them, but most are still with me and are growing beautifully. It’s important to point out that these are plants born from seeds contained in a single fruit (gift of a dear friend), sown the same day and grown over the years in the same conditions, i.e. in my greenhouse, in standard soil (pumice, lapilli and peat in equal parts), watered and fertilized with the same frequency. This is to say that the starting conditions, including the genetics and the grower’s hand, are the same. And yet, as you can see from the photo above, where the three plants (three at random of the twenty-five or so that I have kept for myself) are side by side, they show remarkable differences, at least to the discerning eye and the grower with a minimum of experience.

So let’s see, in this article, how and why different cultivation regimens, assumed as a whole and not just limited to the soil, affect so much the final result and really make the difference between a cactus grown and cultivated in any garden or generic nursery and a cactus grown by an enthusiast or an expert. (…)

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L'articolo How a cactus changes depending on the type of cultivation: the difference made by soil and exposure proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

This peculiar cactus has a debatable scientific name and a slew of common ones.  Echinocatus texensis is an extraordinary cactus, not very well known, and relatively uncommon in cultivation, yet it possesses all the characteristics that make a cactus well-worth growing.  These include its compact and rounded appearance, robust and colourful spines, beautiful blooms, resistance to drought and high tolerance to direct sun as well as tolerating low winter temperatures.  In addition, it has very decorative deep-red fruits (some of the most beautiful among cacti) and a relative simplicity of cultivation combined with a high predisposition for using the “wild” technique.  This means reproducing, as much as possible, the conditions that cacti grow in their habitat, and paying attention to the substrate, direct exposure to the sun, very spartan cultivation, etc.

Origin and habitat

Echinocactus texensis (or Homalocephala texensis according to the original classification by Britton and Rose) is a cactus native to the south-eastern United States, particularly in New Mexico, southwestern Oklahoma and a good part of Texas (hence the name given to this species).  It also grows in some Mexican regions, particularly in the north-eastern areas of the Sierra Madre, in Coahuila, Nuevo Léon, and Tamaulipas states.  According to some sources, this species also grows in Chihuahua, Durango and Zacatecas. E. texensis grows from near sea-level up to 1,000m in very heterogeneous sub-desert areas: from xerophilous (arid) scrub to grasslands, broad clearings in forested areas, plains, valleys, and low hills. This indicates that the soils into where E. texensis sinks its roots can be highly variable, but are primarily calcareous and sandy. One thing is certain, and that is that this cactus almost always grows hidden among grasses or in areas where there is some vegetation consisting of bushes and small shrubs.  The presence of shrubs and grasses indicate a substrate richer in organic matter than that in which some other cacti thrive (eg Ariocarpus and Pelecyphora).  Dying and decomposing as an effect of short life cycles resulting from the aridity of these regions, the grasses enrich the organic component of the soil, and provide nutrients that would not otherwise occur.  We therefore need to bear in mind then that in cultivating E. texensis we should think about using substrates that are not too poor in organic material, in particular with young specimens.

Classification and common names

If the scientific name is debatable from the point of view of classification, namely Homalocephala texensis or Echinocactus texensis, then common names abound.  In the US, where these plants grow, they are called Candy Cactus, Devil’s Head Cactus, Devil’s Pincushion, or Horse Crippler.  In Mexico, E. texensis is also commonly called Mancacaballo, Monco Caballo or Viznaga (Anderson, 2001: 227–229). Regarding its scientific classification, for many years this plant has been included in the genus Homalocephala by Britton and Rose, where it contained just one species, H. texensis.  Later on, several authors decided to eliminate the genus Homalocephala and move the species texensis into the genus Echinocactus, together with the species grusonii, platyacanthus (ingens), horizonthalonius, parryi and polycephalus. In recent years, reopening the debate, many researchers believe it is appropriate to restore the genus Homalocephala, including the species texensis, parryi and polycephalus.  In support of this, a study by several authors (Vargas-Luna et al, 2018), address the issue from a genetic point of view.  In the introduction, the authors argue, “…we propose to recognize a monophyletic Echinocactus and a monophyletic Homalocephala as two distinct genera with their molecular and morphological synapomorphies”. In summary, if we follow their work, the genus Echinocactus will contain only the species grusonii, platyacanthus and horizonthalonius, and the genus Homalocephala will include texensis, parryi and polycephalus.

To further complicate our lives, we find that in the original genus Echinocactus there were four taxa: E. polycephalus subsp. xeranthemoides, E. polycephalus subsp. polycephalus, E. horizonthalonius subsp. nicholii (L.D. Benson) and E. horizonthalonius subsp. horizonthalonius (Coulter, 1896, Benson, 1969).  Strictly speaking, accepting the new distinction, the two E. polycephalus taxa would now be considered to belong to the genus Homalocephala.

Description

Echinocactus (or Homalocephala) texensis is a solitary plant that does not offset, even in old age (unless it has suffered damage to the growing point).  The formative stem shape is globular, but with time it assumes a flattened shape, depressed at the apex.  In nature, the body can be up to 20cm high, with a diameter of about 30cm.  The stem is divided into very pronounced ribs with a thin, sharp edge; in adult specimens, the number of ribs varies from a dozen to 25, Anderson (2001) records 27, and Lodi (1997) 25.  The body colour is light green or dark green (during the winter, it can redden, especially along the ribs) and the areoles, from which the spines appear, are quite widely spaced.  In young specimens, the areoles are woolly, a detail that is common to all Echinocactus, at least in their development phase.

The spines, initially thin and weak, become wide, thick and very strong.  In adult specimens, there are six radial spines (Lodi notes 6 or 7 of them) up to 4 or 5cm in length, and a central spine up to 7cm long (exceptionally even more), thick and broad, flattened, sharp and slightly curved downward at the end. Some may have a short, thick central spine. I think this variability may be determined by a genetic response to local conditions. New spines are red, but they tend to fade to pink, greyish and almost white lower down.  The spine surface shows transverse ridges that testify to the age of the plant.  They are velvety to the touch, and when wet, the spines of E. texensis take on a brilliant, showy, bright-red colour. The phenomena of longitudinal ‘splitting’ of the central spine is sometimes observed in E. texensis, in effect producing a forked central spine. I have observed this in photos, but it has never happened in my collection.

Flowers, fruits and seeds

The flowers of E. texensis are pale pink to white, with a red or orange throat, and emerge at the apex in spring, usually around April.  The corollas can reach a diameter of 5–6cm, and the tepals have the peculiarity of terminal fringing. The yellow stigma lobes provide a handsome contrast.  The aspect and consistency of the flowers are reminiscent of silk.  I am not aware that the flowers are self-fertile (ie able to pollinate themselves).  Nevertheless, I have noticed that both pollination and the consequent formation of the fruit are very easy. The fruits, which form from the end of May, are very large and showy (up to 3–4cm in diameter and 4–5cm long), fleshy, and at the same time extremely firm in texture.  They are bright red and have smooth skin interspersed with small scales.  According to some authors, the fruits are edible, and because they are (or were) utilised for producing candies, these plants are also called Candy Cactus.  However, I do not have any direct evidence of this, and the definition of Candy Cactus could be simply due to the appearance of plants with ripe fruits, which can resemble small sweets. The seeds are medium-sized, not as large as those of Opuntia, for example, but easily handled, oblong and black in colour with a shiny cuticle.

Cultivation

The cultivation of E. texensis is easy enough, much like all species in the genus Echinocactus, with the exception of E. polycephalus, which is regarded as difficult and not recommended for the less experienced.  In over twenty years of growing E. texensis I have noticed only one problem, which is that this plant seems to be inclined to lose its roots much more easily than other cacti.  In my opinion, it may be due to environmental stress or using the wrong potting soil. Over the years, I have experimented with different soils for E. texensis, from purely mineral substrates to mixtures richer in organic matter (peat or earthworm humus).  The results indicate that these plants need a fair amount of organic matter in the substrate, not only when they are still seedlings but also as adults. It is no coincidence that the best results have been obtained by growing E. texensis in a mix of equal parts of pumice, grit and peat.  I had mediocre results with potting soils made of field soil (loam), aggregates such as pumice, and a small part of peat or humus (maximum 10%).  I have never experimented with marl (a type of fine clay) with these plants, but I do not rule out trying it as soon as possible in percentages not exceeding 50% and with the addition of at least 30% organic material. E. texensis, like all Echinocactus, need lots of light. As the plants reach at least three or four years old, from the end of March, they will benefit from being gradually introduced to full sunlight. Proper exposure will go a long way toward forming strong spines and keeping the body low and compact.

As far as temperatures are concerned, these cacti are very tolerant and resistant.  They can easily stand the blazing sun with more than 40°C, provided they are kept outdoors and have plenty of air movement.  During the European winter, if kept completely dry from late September, they can go well below freezing without damage.  I had specimens that have spent a few nights at -10°C and, except for a slight reddening of the epidermis, which disappeared with the arrival of spring, they did not suffer any damage.  According to some sources, E. texensis can withstand temperatures as low as -18°C, but I have no direct experience of this. The watering and fertilising regime does not differ from that of most cacti.  I give plenty of water in the growing season, from April to September, as long as the soil has time to dry between watering, and no water at all from the end of September to the end of March.  Some recommend watering E. texensis lightly, but even using potting soils with 30% organic content, I have never experienced rot, even with heavy watering.  I keep several specimens outside the greenhouse, which have experienced a week’s worth of rain on several occasions with no loss of life or damage.

All my plants, including E. texensis, receive a low-nitrogen cactus fertiliser a couple of times a year during the growing season as the slightly more organic substrate which I use already helps provide some nutrients. I have noticed that E. texensis comes into growth quite early, at least here in Northern Italy, starting from the end of February, when they begin to produce new spines.

Propagation

The only way to reproduce this species is by sowing seed, since they do not produce offsets.  The procedure is probably easier when compared to the sowing of some other cacti by the fact that the seeds of E. texensis are easy to handle because of their larger size.

According to most growers, E. texensis seeds do not need any special treatment, such as scarification, which is necessary or strongly recommended to germinate Echinocactus horizonthalonius, E. parryi and E. polycephalus.  From my experience, E. texensis seeds germinate well without any treatment.  However, some growers suggest that scarification could further increase germination if done correctly. I have always sowed E. texensis in natural light and heat, in April, without any particular procedure, except to soak the seeds for 24 hours with the sole purpose of hydrating them and softening the cuticle, which seems to me to be quite leathery.  I am planning some experiments with both scarified and non-scarified seeds, having many at my disposal originating from plants grown under the same conditions.

How to sow cacti and succulent plants.

Literature

• Anderson, E. F. (2001) The Cactus Family. Timber Press.
• Lodi, G. (1997) Le mie piante grasse. Edagricole. pp 75–76.
• Vargas-Luna, M D et al (2018) Splitting Echinocactus: morphological and molecular evidence support the recognition of Homalocephala as a distinct genus in the Cacteae. PhytoKeys 111: 31–59.
• Vermeulen, N. (1999) Cactus. Idea Libri Srl. pp 56.

Correlated links

Cultivation cards in pdf
Knowledge and curiosity
Echinocactus grusonii: a little history
Wild cultivation

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L'articolo Echinocactus texensis, an in-depth study of the “horse crippler” proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.

The possibilities for making soil suitable for growing cacti and succulents are endless, as you can read in the articles in the appropriate section of this site. The materials with which we can make a substrate, on the other hand, are many: peat, pumice, lapillus, field earth, sand, gravel, etc. Likewise, it is important to remember that the various “ingredients” can be mixed together in many ways: for example, favoring the so-called “inert” rather than the organic component, or the coarser elements in the finer part, and so on.

If you want to learn more about the various materials that can be used to obtain substrates suitable for growing succulents, you can read this specific article.

The experiment

In this specific case, however, I have chosen, as an experiment, to repot some plants obtained from the same sowing (Echinocactus texensis) in three types of soil, so as to be able to evaluate how the various compositions of the substrates influence the growth of the plants. Naturally, it will take time to obtain the first results, even if the first differences in growth (mostly in the growth rate) can be appreciated already after the first year after repotting.

On repotting you can consult the articles contained in the section of the site which can be reached by clicking here. If, on the other hand, you want to know more about the texensis species of the Echinocactus genus, you can read this specific article.

Video

And here is the video of the experiment with the different types of substrate and the description of the materials used:

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Correlated articles

My experiments
How cultivation changes plants
A substrate test
The soil: the materials you can use
Wild cultivation

© The texts, videos, photos and graphic elaborations of the site “Il fiore tra le spine” are original material and are covered by copyright. It’s forbidden to reproduce them in any way.

L'articolo Repotting cacti: an experiment with different substrates to understand how potting soil affects growth proviene da Il fiore tra le spine.